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Why Cant Muslims Show Muhammads Events or Life in Arts

Written By sexta-feira, 29 de abril de 2022 Add Comment Edit

Muhammad depicted in culture

The permissibility of depictions of Muhammad in Islam has been a contentious effect. Oral and written descriptions of Muhammad are readily accepted by all traditions of Islam, just there is disagreement virtually visual depictions.[ane] [2] The Quran does non explicitly or implicitly forbid images of Muhammad. The ahadith (supplemental teachings) present an cryptic picture,[three] [4] but there are a few that have explicitly prohibited Muslims from creating visual depictions of human figures.[5] It is agreed on all sides that there is no authentic visual tradition (pictures created during Muhammad's lifetime) as to the appearance of Muhammad, although in that location are early on legends of portraits of him, and written concrete descriptions whose authenticity is oftentimes accustomed.

The question of whether images in Islamic art, including those depicting Muhammad, can be considered as religious fine art remains a matter of contention among scholars.[6] They announced in illustrated books that are ordinarily works of history or poetry, including those with religious subjects; the Quran is never illustrated: "context and intent are essential to understanding Islamic pictorial fine art. The Muslim artists creating images of Muhammad, and the public who beheld them, understood that the images were non objects of worship. Nor were the objects so busy used as office of religious worship".[7]

However, scholars concede that such images take "a spiritual element", and were as well sometimes used in informal religious devotions celebrating the day of the Mi'raj.[8] Many visual depictions simply bear witness Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him equally a flame; other images, notably from before about 1500, evidence his face.[9] [10] [eleven] With the notable exception of mod-twenty-four hour period Islamic republic of iran,[12] depictions of Muhammad were rare, never numerous in any community or era throughout Islamic history,[13] [14] and appeared almost exclusively in the private medium of Western farsi and other miniature book illustration.[15] [sixteen] The key medium of public religious art in Islam was and is calligraphy.[14] [15] In Ottoman Turkey the hilya developed as a decorated visual arrangement of texts nearly Muhammad that was displayed as a portrait might be.

Visual images of Muhammad in the non-Islamic West have always been exceptional. In the Center Ages they were mostly hostile, and most oft announced in illustrations of Dante'due south poetry. In the Renaissance and Early Mod period, Muhammad was sometimes depicted, typically in a more neutral or heroic light; the depictions began to encounter protests from Muslims. In the age of the Internet, a handful of extravaganza depictions printed in the European press have caused global protests and controversy and been associated with violence.

Background

In Islam, although zip in the Quran explicitly bans images, some supplemental hadith explicitly ban the cartoon of images of whatsoever living creature; other hadith tolerate images, but never encourage them. Hence, most Muslims avoid visual depictions of Muhammad or any other prophet such equally Moses or Abraham.[1] [17] [18]

Most Sunni Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the prophets of Islam should be prohibited and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad.[20] The central concern is that the apply of images can encourage idolatry.[21] In Shia Islam, nevertheless, images of Muhammad are quite common nowadays, even though Shia scholars historically were confronting such depictions.[20] [22] Still, many Muslims who take a stricter view of the supplemental traditions will sometimes claiming any depiction of Muhammad, including those created and published past non-Muslims.[23]

Many major religions have experienced times during their history when images of their religious figures were forbidden. In Judaism, one of the Ten Commandments states "G shalt not brand unto thee whatsoever graven image", while in the Christian New Attestation all covetousness (greed) is defined as idolatry. In Byzantine Christianity during the periods of Iconoclasm in the eighth century, and once again during the 9th century, visual representations of sacred figures were forbidden, and only the Cross could be depicted in churches. The visual representation of Jesus and other religious figures remains a business organisation in parts of stricter Protestant Christianity.[24]

Portraiture of Muhammad in Islamic literature

A number of hadith and other writings of the early on Islamic period include stories in which portraits of Muhammad appear. Abu Hanifa Dinawari, Ibn al-Faqih, Ibn Wahshiyya and Abu Nu`aym tell versions of a story in which the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius is visited by two Meccans. He shows them a cabinet, handed down to him from Alexander the Great and originally created past God for Adam, each of whose drawers contains a portrait of a prophet. They are astonished to see a portrait of Muhammad in the final drawer. Sadid al-Din al-Kazaruni tells a similar story in which the Meccans are visiting the male monarch of China. Kisa'i tells that God did indeed give portraits of the prophets to Adam.[25]

Ibn Wahshiyya and Abu Nu'ayn tell a second story in which a Meccan merchant visiting Syrian arab republic is invited to a Christian monastery where a number of sculptures and paintings draw prophets and saints. There he sees the images of Muhammad and Abu Bakr, equally still unidentified by the Christians.[26] In an 11th-century story, Muhammad is said so accept sat for a portrait past an artist retained by Sassanid king Kavadh Two. The king liked the portrait and then much that he placed it on his pillow.[25]

Later, Al-Maqrizi tells a story in which Muqawqis, ruler of Arab republic of egypt, meets with Muhammad's envoy. He asks the envoy to draw Muhammad and checks the clarification against a portrait of an unknown prophet which he has on a piece of cloth. The description matches the portrait.[25]

In a 17th-century Chinese story, the king of Mainland china asks to meet Muhammad, but Muhammad instead sends his portrait. The rex is so enamoured of the portrait that he is converted to Islam, at which point the portrait, having washed its job, disappears.[27]

Depiction by Muslims

Verbal descriptions

In one of the earliest sources, Ibn Sa'd's Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, there are numerous verbal descriptions of Muhammad. One description sourced to Ali ibn Abi Talib is every bit follows:

The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him, is neither besides short nor besides alpine. His hair are neither curly nor straight, just a mixture of the two. He is a homo of black hair and big skull. His complexion has a tinge of redness. His shoulder bones are wide and his palms and feet are fleshy. He has long al-masrubah which means pilus growing from neck to navel. He is of long centre-lashes, shut eyebrows, smooth and shining fore-head and long space between two shoulders. When he walks he walks inclining every bit if coming down from a peak. [...] I never saw a homo similar him before him or afterward him. [28] [ unreliable source? ]

From the Ottoman catamenia onwards such texts have been presented on calligraphic hilya panels (Turkish: hilye, pl. hilyeler), commonly surrounded past an elaborate frame of illuminated ornament and either included in books or, more often, muraqqas or albums, or sometimes placed in wooden frames and then that they can hang on a wall.[29] The elaborated grade of the calligraphic tradition was founded in the 17th century by the Ottoman calligrapher Hâfiz Osman. While containing a concrete and artistically appealing description of Muhammad's appearance, they complied with the strictures against figurative depictions of Muhammad, leaving his appearance to the viewer'southward imagination. Several parts of the complex design were named after parts of the body, from the head downwards, indicating the explicit intention of the hilya every bit a substitute for a figurative depiction.[30] [31]

The Ottoman hilye format customarily starts with a basmala, shown on pinnacle, and is separated in the middle by Quran 21:107:[32] "And We accept non sent you lot but as a mercy to the worlds".[31] Four compartments set around the cardinal one oft contain the names of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali, each followed by "radhi Allahu anhu" ("may God exist pleased with him").

  • Hilye by Hâfiz Osman

  • Hilye by Hâfiz Osman

  • Hilye by Hâfiz Osman

  • Hilye past Mehmed Tahir Efendi (d. 1848)

  • Hilye by Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi (1801–1876)

  • Hilye by Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi

  • Hilye inscribed on the petals of a pink rose symbolising Muhammad (18th century).

Calligraphic representations

The most common visual representation of the Muhammad in Islamic art, especially in Arabic-speaking areas, is by a calligraphic representation of his name, a sort of monogram in roughly circular form, often given a decorated frame. Such inscriptions are commonly in Arabic, and may rearrange or echo forms, or add a blessing or honorific, or for example the give-and-take "messenger" or a contraction of information technology. The range of ways of representing Muhammad'due south proper noun is considerable, including ambigrams; he is also frequently symbolised past a rose.

The more elaborate versions relate to other Islamic traditions of special forms of calligraphy such every bit those writing the names of God, and the secular tughra or elaborate monogram of Ottoman rulers.

  • Muhammad's name in Thuluth, an Arabic calligraphic script; the smaller writing in the height left means "Peace be upon him"

  • Calligraphic representation of Muhammad'south proper noun, painted on the wall of a mosque in Edirne in Turkey

  • Calligraphy tile from Turkey (18th century), containing the names of God, Muhammad, and his first four successors, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali

  • Belatedly 18th- or early 19th-century calligraphic panel by Mustafa Rakim

  • Mirror calligraphy of Muhammad'due south proper noun

  • Decoupage calligraphy (18th or 19th century) with Muhammad'southward name in mirror script, top center; the area below represents a mihrab, or prayer niche

  • Palestinian pottery calligraphy featuring the names of God (الله) and Muhammad (محمد)

  • Ambigram – Muhammad (محمد) upside down is read equally Ali (علي), and vice versa

  • Tile from a 14th-century mausoleum in Uzbekistan, inscribed with Muhammad's name (محمد) in square Kufic; ane of a ready used to frame a doorway

  • Mosque cupola, with Quranic inscriptions and Kufic representations of Allah'due south and Muhammad's names worked into the tiling

  • Banna'i on the Royal Mosque in Isfahan, Iran, with square Kufic repeats of Muhammad's and Ali'due south names

Figurative visual depictions

Throughout Islamic history, depictions of Muhammad in Islamic art were rare.[13] Even so, there exists a "notable corpus of images of Muhammad produced, by and large in the class of manuscript illustrations, in various regions of the Islamic earth from the thirteenth century through modern times".[33] Depictions of Muhammad date back to the start of the tradition of Persian miniatures as illustrations in books. The illustrated book from the Persianate earth (Warka and Gulshah, Topkapi Palace Library H. 841, attributed to Konya 1200–1250) contains the 2 earliest known Islamic depictions of Muhammad.[34]

This volume dates to before or merely around the time of the Mongol invasion of Anatolia in the 1240s, and earlier the campaigns confronting Persia and Republic of iraq of the 1250s, which destroyed great numbers of books in libraries. Contempo scholarship has noted that, although surviving early examples are now uncommon, more often than not homo figurative fine art was a continuous tradition in Islamic lands (such as in literature, science, and history); as early as the eighth century, such art flourished during the Abbasid Caliphate (c. 749 - 1258, across Kingdom of spain, N Africa, Arab republic of egypt, Syria, Turkey, Mesopotamia, and Persia).[35]

Christiane Gruber traces a evolution from "veristic" images showing the whole body and face up, in the 13th to 15th centuries, to more "abstract" representations in the 16th to 19th centuries, the latter including the representation of Muhammad by a special type of calligraphic representation, with the older types also remaining in use.[36] An intermediate blazon, first constitute from about 1400, is the "inscribed portrait" where the face of Muhammad is blank, with "Ya Muhammad" ("O Muhammad") or a similar phrase written in the infinite instead; these may be related to Sufi thought. In some cases the inscription appears to have been an underpainting that would later be covered by a face or veil, so a pious act by the painter, for his eyes solitary, but in others it was intended to be seen.[33] According to Gruber, a good number of these paintings later on underwent iconoclastic mutilations, in which the facial features of Muhammad were scratched or smeared, as Muslim views on the acceptability of veristic images inverse.[37]

A number of extant Persian manuscripts representing Muhammad date from the Ilkhanid period under the new Mongol rulers, including a Marzubannama dating to 1299. The Ilkhanid MS Arab 161 of 1307/8 contains 25 illustrations found in an illustrated version of Al-Biruni's The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries, of which five include depictions Muhammad, including the ii final images, the largest and almost accomplished in the manuscript, which emphasize the relation of Muhammad and `Ali according to Shi`ite doctrine.[38] Co-ordinate to Christiane Gruber, other works use images to promote Sunni Islam, such as a set up of Mi'raj illustrations (MS H 2154) in the early 14th century,[39] although other historians have dated the same illustrations to the Jalayrid period of Shia rulers.[40]

Muhammad, shown with a veiled face and halo, at Mountain Hira (16th-century Ottoman illustration of the Siyer-i Nebi)

Depictions of Muhammad are likewise found in Persian manuscripts in the following Timurid and Safavid dynasties, and Turkish Ottoman art in the 14th to 17th centuries, and beyond. Perhaps the almost elaborate wheel of illustrations of Muhammad's life is the copy, completed in 1595, of the 14th-century biography Siyer-i Nebi commissioned by the Ottoman sultan Murat III for his son, the futurity Mehmed III, containing over 800 illustrations.[41]

Probably the commonest narrative scene represented is the Mi'raj; according to Gruber, "There exist countless single-page paintings of the meʿrāj included in the beginnings of Persian and Turkish romances and epic stories produced from the kickoff of the 15th century to the 20th century".[42] These images were as well used in celebrations of the anniversary of the Mi'raj on 27 Rajab, when the accounts were recited aloud to male groups: "Didactic and engaging, oral stories of the ascension seem to have had the religious goal of inducing attitudes of praise amongst their audiences". Such practices are nearly hands documented in the 18th and 19th centuries, simply manuscripts from much before appear to have fulfilled the same function.[43] Otherwise a large number of different scenes may be represented at times, from Muhammad's birth to the stop of his life, and his existence in Paradise.[44]

Halo

In the earliest depictions Muhammad may be shown with or without a halo, the earliest halos beingness round in the mode of Christian art,[45] but earlier long a flaming halo or aureole in the Buddhist or Chinese tradition becomes more common than the circular form constitute in the West, when a halo is used. A halo or flame may surround but his head, but often his whole body, and in some images the body itself cannot be seen for the halo. This "luminous" class of representation avoided the issues caused by "veristic" images, and could be taken to convey qualities of Muhammad's person described in texts.[46] If the body is visible, the confront may exist covered with a veil (see gallery for examples of both types). This form of representation, which began at the start of the Safavid period in Persia,[47] was done out of reverence and respect.[13] Other prophets of Islam, and Muhammad's wives and relations, may be treated in like ways if they besides appear.

T. West. Arnold (1864–1930), an early historian of Islamic fine art, stated that "Islam has never welcomed painting as a handmaid of organized religion as both Buddhism and Christianity take done. Mosques have never been decorated with religious pictures, nor has a pictorial fine art been employed for the instruction of the infidel or for the edification of the faithful."[13] Comparing Islam to Christianity, he also writes: "Accordingly, in that location has never been any historical tradition in the religious painting of Islam – no artistic development in the representation of accepted types – no schools of painters of religious subjects; least of all has there been any guidance on the office of leaders of religious thought corresponding to that of ecclesiastical authorities in the Christian Church building."[13]

Images of Muhammad remain controversial to the present mean solar day, and are not considered acceptable in many countries in the Middle East. For example, in 1963 an account by a Turkish author of a Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca was banned in Pakistan because information technology contained reproductions of miniatures showing Muhammad unveiled.[48]

  • "Muhammad at the Ka'ba" from the Siyer-i Nebi (1595).[49] Muhammad is shown with veiled face.

  • Journey of the Prophet Muhammad in the Majmac al-tawarikh (Compendium of Histories), c. 1425; Timurid. Herat, Transitional islamic state of afghanistan.

  • Miraj image from 1539 to 1543, reflecting the new, Safavid convention of depicting Muhammad veiled.

  • Muhammad and his wife Aisha freeing the girl of a tribal main. From the Siyer-i Nebi.

  • Muhammad'due south ascent into the Heavens, a journey known as the Mi'raj, as depicted in a re-create of the Bostan of Saadi.

  • "Mohammed's Paradise", Persian miniature from The History of Mohammed, BnF, Paris.

Contemporary Iran

Despite the avoidance of the representation of Muhammad in Sunni Islam, images of Muhammed are non uncommon in Iran. The Iranian Shi'ism seems more tolerant on this point than Sunnite orthodoxy.[50] In Islamic republic of iran, depictions have considerable acceptance to the present twenty-four hours, and may be found in the modernistic forms of the poster and postcard.[12] [51]

Since the late 1990s, experts in Islamic iconography discovered images, printed on newspaper in Iran, portraying Mohammed as a teenager wearing a turban.[l] At that place are several variants, all show the same juvenile confront, identified by an inscription such as "Muhammad, the Messenger of God", or a more detailed legend referring to an episode in the life of Muhammad and the supposed origin of the epitome.[50] Some Iranian versions of these posters attributed the original delineation to a Bahira, a Christian monk who met the young Muhammad in Syria. By crediting the prototype to a Christian and predating it to the time earlier Muhammad became a prophet, the manufacturers of the image exonerate themselves from any wrongdoing.[52]

The motif was taken from a photograph of a young Tunisian taken by the Germans Rudolf Franz Lehnert and Ernst Heinrich Landrock in 1905 or 1906, which had been printed in high editions on picture post cards till 1921.[50] This delineation has been popular in Iran equally a course of curiosity.[52]

In Tehran, a mural depicting the prophet – his face up veiled – riding Buraq was installed at a public road intersection in 2008, the but mural of its kind in a Muslim-bulk country.[12]

Cinema

Very few films have been made near Muhammad. The 1976 motion-picture show The Bulletin, also known as Mohammad, Messenger of God, focused on other persons and never directly showed Muhammad or near members of his family. A devotional cartoon called Muhammad: The Last Prophet was released in 2004.[53] An Iranian flick directed by Majid Majidi was released in 2015 named Muhammad. It is the first part of the trilogy motion picture serial on Muhammad past Majid Majidi.

While Sunni Muslims take ever explicitly prohibited the depiction of Muhammad on moving-picture show,[54] contemporary Shi'a scholars have taken a more relaxed attitude, stating that it is permissible to depict Muhammad, even in television or movies, if done with respect.[55]

Depiction by not-Muslims

Western representations of Muhammad were very rare until the explosion of images following the invention of the printing press; he is shown in a few medieval images, normally in an unflattering manner, oftentimes influenced past his cursory mention in Dante's Divine Comedy. Muhammad sometimes figures in Western depictions of groups of influential people in world history. Such depictions tend to be favourable or neutral in intent; i instance tin be institute at the United States Supreme Courtroom building in Washington, D.C. Created in 1935, the frieze includes major historical lawgivers, and places Muhammad alongside Hammurabi, Moses, Confucius, and others. In 1997, a controversy erupted surrounding the frieze, and tourist materials have since been edited to describe the depiction as "a well-intentioned attempt by the sculptor to honor Muhammad" that "bears no resemblance to Muhammad."[56]

In 1955, a statue of Muhammad was removed from a courthouse in New York City later on the ambassadors of Indonesia, Islamic republic of pakistan, and Egypt requested its removal.[57] The extremely rare representations of Muhammad in monumental sculpture are especially likely to be offensive to Muslims, as the statue is the archetype form for idols, and a fearfulness of any hint of idolatry is the basis of Islamic prohibitions. Islamic art has nigh always avoided big sculptures of any bailiwick, particularly free-continuing ones; only a few animals are known, more often than not fountain-heads, like those in the Lion Courtroom of the Alhambra; the Pisa Griffin is perhaps the largest.

In 1997, the Council on American–Islamic Relations, a Muslim advancement group in the United States, wrote to U.s.a. Supreme Courtroom Chief Justice William Rehnquist requesting that the sculpted representation of Muhammad on the n frieze within the Supreme Court building exist removed or sanded down. The court rejected CAIR's request.[58]

In that location take likewise been numerous book illustrations showing Muhammad.

Dante, in The Divine Comedy: Inferno, placed Muhammad in Hell, with his entrails hanging out (Canto 28):

No barrel, not even 1 where the hoops and staves go every which way, was ever separate open like one frayed Sinner I saw, ripped from chin to where we fart below.
His guts hung between his legs and displayed His vital organs, including that wretched sack Which converts to shit whatever gets conveyed downwards the gullet.
As I stared at him he looked back And with his hands pulled his chest open up, Saying, "Meet how I separate open the crack in myself! See how twisted and broken Mohammed is! Before me walks Ali, his confront Crack from chin to crown, grief–stricken." [59]

This scene was sometimes shown in illustrations of the Divina Commedia earlier modern times. Muhammad is represented in a 15th-century fresco Last Judgement past Giovanni da Modena and drawing on Dante, in the Church of San Petronio, Bologna, Italy.[60] and artwork by Salvador Dalí, Auguste Rodin, William Blake, and Gustave Doré.[61]

  • Muhammad, seated on the left, possibly reading from the Quran, as depicted in the Nuremberg Chronicle [62]

  • Early Renaissance fresco illustrating Dante's Inferno. Muhammad is depicted beingness dragged downwards to Hell.

  • Portrait of Muhammad as a generic "Easterner", from the PANSEBEIA, or A View of all Religions in the World past Alexander Ross (1683).

  • Analogy from La vie de Mahomet, by M. Prideaux, published in 1699. It shows Muhammad belongings a sword and a crescent while trampling on a globe, a cross, and the Ten Commandments.

Controversies in the 21st century

The starting time of the 21st century has been marked by controversies over depictions of Muhammad, not only for recent caricatures or cartoons, simply also regarding the brandish of historical artwork.

Die Berufung Mohammeds durch den Engel Gabriel past Theodor Hosemann, 1847, published past Spiegel in 1999

In a story on morals at the terminate of the millennium in December 1999, the German language news magazine Der Spiegel printed on the same folio pictures of "moral apostles" Muhammad, Jesus, Confucius, and Immanuel Kant. In the subsequent weeks, the magazine received protests, petitions and threats against publishing the picture of Muhammad. The Turkish Boob tube-station Prove TV broadcast the telephone number of an editor who so received daily calls.[63]

Nadeem Elyas, leader of the Central Quango of Muslims in Frg said that the picture show should not be printed over again in society to avoid hurting the feelings of Muslims intentionally. Elyas recommended to whiten the confront of Muhammad instead.[64]

In June 2001, the Spiegel with consideration of Islamic laws published a picture show of Muhammed with a whitened face on its title page.[65] The same flick of Muhammad past Hosemann had been published by the magazine once before in 1998 in a special edition on Islam, but then without evoking similar protests.[66]

In 2002, Italian constabulary reported that they had disrupted a terrorist plot to destroy a church in Bologna, which contains a 15th-century fresco depicting an image of Muhammad (see above).[60] [67]

Examples of depictions of Muhammad being altered include a 1940 landscape at the University of Utah having the name of Muhammad removed from beneath the painting in 2000 at the request of Muslim students.[68]

Cartoons

In 1990, a Muhammad caricature was published in Indonesian mag, Senang; it was followed past dissolution of the magazine.[69] In 2005, Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten published a set up of editorial cartoons, many of which depicted Muhammad. In tardily 2005 and early 2006, Danish Muslim organizations ignited a controversy through public protests and by spreading cognition of the publication of the cartoons.[24] According to John Woods, Islamic history professor at the University of Chicago, it was not simply the depiction of Muhammad that was offensive, but the implication that Muhammad was somehow a supporter of terrorism.[18] In Sweden, an online caricature competition was announced in support of Jyllands-Posten, but Foreign Diplomacy Minister Laila Freivalds and the Swedish Security Service pressured the internet access provider to shut the page downwards. In 2006, when her involvement was revealed to the public, she had to resign.[seventy] On 12 February 2008 the Danish law arrested 3 men declared to be involved in a plot to assassinate Kurt Westergaard, one of the cartoonists.[71]

Muhammad appeared in the 2001 South Park episode "Super Best Friends". The image was afterward removed from the 2006 episode "Cartoon Wars" and the 2010 episodes "200" and "201" due to controversies regarding Muhammad cartoons in European newspapers.

In 2006, the controversial American animated television comedy program South Park, which had previously depicted Muhammad as a superhero character in the July 4, 2001 episode "Super Best Friends"[72] and has depicted Muhammad in the opening sequence since that episode,[73] attempted to satirize the Danish newspaper incident. In the episode, "Cartoon Wars Function II", they intended to show Muhammad handing a salmon helmet to Peter Griffin, a character from the Fox animated serial Family unit Guy. However, Comedy Fundamental, who airs South Park, rejected the scene, citing concerns of violent protests in the Islamic world. The creators of Due south Park reacted past instead satirizing Comedy Cardinal'due south double standard for broadcast acceptability by including a segment of "Cartoon Wars Part II" in which American president George Westward. Bush and Jesus defecate on the flag of the United states.

The Lars Vilks Muhammad drawings controversy began in July 2007 with a series of drawings by Swedish artist Lars Vilks which depicted Muhammad as a roundabout dog. Several art galleries in Sweden declined to show the drawings, citing security concerns and fearfulness of violence. The controversy gained international attention after the Örebro-based regional newspaper Nerikes Allehanda published ane of the drawings on August 18 to illustrate an editorial on self-censorship and freedom of religion.[74]

While several other leading Swedish newspapers had published the drawings already, this particular publication led to protests from Muslims in Sweden likewise every bit official condemnations from several foreign governments including Islamic republic of iran,[75] Islamic republic of pakistan,[76] Afghanistan,[77] Arab republic of egypt[78] and Hashemite kingdom of jordan,[79] as well as past the inter-governmental Organisation of the Islamic Briefing (OIC).[fourscore] The controversy occurred about one and a half years after the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy in Denmark in early 2006.

Another controversy emerged in September 2007 when Bangladeshi cartoonist Arifur Rahman was detained on suspicion of showing disrespect to Muhammad. The acting authorities confiscated copies of the Bengali-language Prothom Alo in which the drawings appeared. The cartoon consisted of a boy property a true cat conversing with an elderly man. The human asks the boy his name, and he replies "Babu". The older man chides him for not mentioning the name of Muhammad before his name. He then points to the cat and asks the boy what information technology is called, and the male child replies "Muhammad the cat".

The drawing acquired a firestorm in Bangladesh, with militant Islamists demanding that Rahman be executed for blasphemy. A grouping of people torched copies of the paper and several Islamic groups protested, maxim the drawings ridiculed Mohammad and his companions. They demanded "exemplary punishment" for the paper's editor and the cartoonist. Bangladesh does non have a blasphemy police force, although one had been demanded by the same extremist Islamic groups.

Charlie Hebdo

three Nov 2011 cover of Charlie Hebdo, renamed Charia Hebdo (Sharia Hebdo). The word balloon reads "100 lashes if you don't die of laughter!"

Cover of 14 January 2015 in the aforementioned style as the 3 November 2011 encompass, with the phrase Je Suis Charlie and the title "All is forgiven."[81]

On 2 Nov 2010, the role of the French satirical weekly newspaper Charlie Hebdo at Paris was attacked with a firebomb and its website hacked, afterwards information technology had announced plans to publish a special edition with Muhammad as its "chief editor", and the championship page with a cartoon of Muhammad had been pre-issued on social media.

In September 2012, the newspaper published a series of satirical cartoons of Muhammad, some of which feature nude caricatures of him. In January 2013, Charlie Hebdo announced that they would brand a comic book on the life of Muhammad.[82] In March 2013, Al-Qaeda's branch in Yemen, commonly known as Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), released a hit list in an edition of their English language-language mag Inspire. The list included Stéphane Charbonnier, Lars Vilks, three Jyllands-Posten employees involved in the Muhammad cartoon controversy, Molly Norris from the Everybody Draw Mohammed Day and others whom AQAP defendant of insulting Islam.[83]

On seven January 2015, the function was attacked once more with 12 shot dead, including Stéphane Charbonnier, and 11 injured.

On 16 October 2020, middle-schoolhouse teacher Samuel Paty was killed and beheaded afterwards showing Charlie Hebdo cartoons depicting Muhammad during a class on freedom of oral communication.

Wikipedia article

In 2008, around 180,000 people, many Muslims, signed a petition protesting against the inclusion of Muhammad'south depictions in the English Wikipedia'south Muhammad article.[84] [85] [86]

The petition was opposed to a depiction of Muhammad prohibiting Nasīʾ

The petition opposed a reproduction of a 17th-century Ottoman copy of a 14th-century Ilkhanate manuscript image (MS Arabe 1489) depicting Muhammad as he prohibited Nasīʾ.[87] Jeremy Henzell-Thomas of The American Muslim deplored the petition equally i of "these mechanical knee-jerk reactions [which] are gifts to those who seek every opportunity to decry Islam and ridicule Muslims and can simply exacerbate a situation in which Muslims and the Western media seem to exist locked in an ever-descending spiral of ignorance and mutual loathing."[88]

Wikipedia considered but rejected a compromise that would allow visitors to choose whether to view the page with images.[86] The Wikipedia community has not acted upon the petition.[84] The site'south answers to frequently asked questions about these images state that Wikipedia does not censor itself for the benefit of any one group.[89]

Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Metropolitan Museum of Art in January 2010 confirmed to the New York Post that it had quietly removed all historic paintings which contained depictions of Muhammad from public exhibition. The Museum quoted objections on the office of conservative Muslims which were "under review." The museum's action was criticized every bit excessive political correctness, as were other decisions taken close to the aforementioned time, including the renaming of the "Primitive Art Galleries" to the "Arts of Africa, Oceania and the Americas" and the projected "Islamic Galleries" to "Arab Lands, Turkey, Iran, Cardinal Asia and Later South Asia".[90]

Everybody Describe Mohammed Day

Everybody Depict Mohammed Day was a protest against those who threatened violence against artists who drew representations of Muhammad. It began as a protest against the activeness of One-act Central in forbidding the broadcast of the Southward Park episode "201" in response to death threats against some of those responsible for the segment. Observance of the day began with a drawing posted on the Cyberspace on April 20, 2010, accompanied by text suggesting that "everybody" create a drawing representing Muhammad, on May twenty, 2010, as a protest against efforts to limit freedom of speech.

Muhammad Art Exhibit & Competition

A May 3, 2015, event held in Garland, Texas, held by American activists Pamela Geller and Robert Spencer, was the scene of a shooting by two individuals who were later themselves shot and killed outside the event.[91] Police officers assisting in security at the event returned fire and killed the two gunmen. The effect offered a $10,000 prize and was said to exist in response to the January 2015 attacks on the French mag Charlie Hebdo. One of the gunmen was identified as a erstwhile terror doubtable, known to the Federal Agency of Investigation.[92]

Batley Grammar School

In March 2021 a teacher at Batley Grammar School in England was suspended, and the headmaster issued an apology, afterward the teacher showed 1 or more of the Charlie Hebdo cartoons to pupils during a lesson. The incident sparked protests outside the school, enervating the resignation or sacking of the teacher involved.[93] Commenting on the situation, the Great britain government's Communities Secretary, Robert Jenrick, said teachers should be able to "accordingly show images of the prophet" in class and the protests are "deeply unsettling" due to the UK being a "free society". He added teachers should "non be threatened" by religious extremists.[94]

Run across too

  • Qadam Rasul
  • The Satanic Verses by Salman Rushdie
  • 2006 Idomeneo controversy

General:

  • Censorship in Islamic societies
  • Criticism of Muhammad

Notes

  1. ^ a b T. West. Arnold (June 1919). "An Indian Film of Muhammad and His Companions". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. The Burlington Mag for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195. 34 (195): 249–252. JSTOR 860736.
  2. ^ Jonathan Blossom & Sheila Blair (1997). Islamic Arts . London: Phaidon. p. 202.
  3. ^ The Koran Does Not Forbid Images of the Prophet, 9 Jan 2015, Christiane Gruber, University of Michigan]
  4. ^ Professor Christiane Gruber Beyond Belief
  5. ^ What Everyone Needs to Know nearly Islam, John L. Esposito - 2011 p. 14; for hadith see Sahih al-Bukhari, Hadith: 7.834, 7.838, seven.840, vii.844, seven.846.
  6. ^ Gruber (2010), p. 27.
  7. ^ Cosman, Pelner and Jones, Linda Gale. Handbook to life in the medieval earth, p. 623, Infobase Publishing, ISBN 0-8160-4887-eight, ISBN 978-0-8160-4887-8
  8. ^ Gruber (2010), p.27 (quote) and 43.
  9. ^ Gruber (2005), pp. 239, 247–253.
  10. ^ Brendan Jan (one February 2009). The Arab Conquests of the Eye East . Twenty-Beginning Century Books. p. 34. ISBN978-0-8225-8744-6 . Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  11. ^ Omid Safi (2 Nov 2010). Memories of Muhammad: Why the Prophet Matters. HarperCollins. p. 171. ISBN978-0-06-123135-three . Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  12. ^ a b c Christiane Gruber: Images of the Prophet In and Out of Modernity: The Curious Case of a 2008 Mural in Tehran, in Christiane Gruber; Sune Haugbolle (17 July 2013). Visual Culture in the Modernistic Middle East: Rhetoric of the Prototype. Indiana University Printing. pp. 3–31. ISBN978-0-253-00894-vii. See also [1] and [2].
  13. ^ a b c d due east Arnold, Thomas Due west. (2002–2011) [First published in 1928]. Painting in Islam, a Study of the Place of Pictorial Art in Muslim Civilization. Gorgias Press LLC. pp. 91–nine. ISBN978-1-931956-91-eight.
  14. ^ a b Dirk van der Plas (1987). Effigies dei: essays on the history of religions. BRILL. p. 124. ISBN978-90-04-08655-5 . Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  15. ^ a b Ernst, Carl W. (August 2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Gimmicky Earth. UNC Press Books. pp. 78–79. ISBN978-0-8078-5577-v . Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  16. ^ Devotion in pictures: Muslim popular iconography – Introduction to the exhibition, University of Bergen.
  17. ^ Office of the Curator (2003-05-08). "Court Friezes: North and South Walls" (PDF). Information Sheet, Supreme Court of the United States . Retrieved 2007-07-08 .
  18. ^ a b "Explaining the outrage". Chicago Tribune. 2006-02-08.
  19. ^ a b Devotion in pictures: Muslim popular iconography – The prophet Muhammad, University of Bergen
  20. ^ Eaton, Charles Le Gai (1985). Islam and the destiny of man. Land University of New York Press. p. 207. ISBN978-0-88706-161-v.
  21. ^ Thomas Walker Arnold says "It was not merely Sunni schools of law simply Shia jurists as well who fulminated confronting this figured art. Because the Persians are Shiites, many Europeans writers have assumed that the Shia sect had not the same objection to representing living being as the rival set of the Sunni; but such an opinion ignores the fact that Shiisum did not get the state church in Persia until the rise of the Safivid dynasty at the beginning of the 16th century."
  22. ^ "Islamic Figurative Art and Depictions of Muhammad". religionfacts.com. Retrieved 2007-07-06 .
  23. ^ a b Richard Halicks (2006-02-12). "Images of Muhammad: Three ways to see a cartoon". Atlanta Periodical-Constitution.
  24. ^ a b c Grabar, Oleg (2003). "The Story of Portraits of the Prophet Muhammad". Studia Islamica (96): 19–38. doi:10.2307/1596240. JSTOR 1596240.
  25. ^ Asani, Ali (1995). Celebrating Muhammad: Images of the Prophet in Popular Muslim Piety. Columbia, SC: University of S Carolina Printing. pp. 64–65.
  26. ^ Leslie, Donald (1986). Islam in Traditional Mainland china. Canberra: Canberra College of Advanced Education. p. 73.
  27. ^ Ibn Sa'd – Kitabh al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, as translated by Due south. Moinul and H.M. Ghazanfar, Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi, northward.d.
  28. ^ Gruber (2005), p.231-232
  29. ^ F. East. Peters (ten November 2010). Jesus and Muhammad: Parallel Tracks, Parallel Lives. Oxford University Press. pp. 160–161. ISBN978-0-19-974746-7 . Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  30. ^ a b Jonathan Due east. Brockopp (30 Apr 2010). The Cambridge companion to Muḥammad. Cambridge University Press. p. 130. ISBN978-0-521-71372-half dozen . Retrieved 6 Nov 2011.
  31. ^ Quran 21:107
  32. ^ a b Gruber (2005), p. 240-241
  33. ^ Grabar, p. 19; Gruber (2005), p. 235 (from where the date range), Blair, Sheila S., The Development of the Illustrated Book in Islamic republic of iran, Muqarnas, Vol. 10, Essays in Honor of Oleg Grabar (1993), p. 266, BRILL, JSTOR says "c. 1250"
  34. ^ J. Bloom & Southward. Blair (2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. pp. 192 and 207. ISBN978-0-19-530991-1.
  35. ^ Gruber (2005), 229, and throughout
  36. ^ Gruber (2005), 229
  37. ^ Gruber (2010), pp.27-28
  38. ^ Gruber (2010), quote p. 43; by and large pp.29-45
  39. ^ Gruber, Christiane (2010-03-fifteen). The Ilkhanid Volume of Rising . Tauris Academic Studies. p. 25. ISBN978-one-84511-499-2.
  40. ^ Tanındı, Zeren (1984). Siyer-i nebî: İslam tasvir sanatında Hz. Muhammedʹin hayatı. Hürriyet Vakfı Yayınları.
  41. ^ Gruber (Iranica)
  42. ^ Gruber (2010), p.43
  43. ^ The nativity is rare, only appears in an early manuscript in Edinburgh
  44. ^ Arnold, 95
  45. ^ Gruber, 230, 236
  46. ^ Brend, Barbara. Islamic Fine art, p. 161, British Museum Printing.
  47. ^ Schimmel, Annemarie, Deciphering the signs of God: a phenomenological approach to Islam, p.45, n. 86, SUNY Press, 1994, ISBN 0-7914-1982-7, ISBN 978-0-7914-1982-three
  48. ^ "Ottomans : religious painting". Retrieved 1 May 2016.
  49. ^ a b c d Pierre Centlivres, Micheline Centlivres-Demont: Une étrange rencontre. La photographie orientaliste de Lehnert et Landrock et l'epitome iranienne du prophète Mahomet, Études photographiques Nr. 17, November 2005 (in French)
  50. ^ Gruber (2010), p.253, illustrates a postcard bought in 2001.
  51. ^ a b "Mohammed | Iconic Photos". Iconicphotos.wordpress.com. Retrieved 2013-06-06 .
  52. ^ "Fine Media Group". Archived from the original on 2006-05-09. Retrieved 2006-03-11 .
  53. ^ Alessandra. Raengo & Robert Stam (2004). A Companion To Literature And Film . Blackwell Publishing. p. 31. ISBN0-631-23053-X.
  54. ^ "Istifta". Archived from the original on 2006-10-17. Retrieved 2006-03-10 .
  55. ^ Biskupic, Joan (March 11, 1998). "Lawgivers: From 2 Friezes, Cracking Figures Of Legal History Gaze Upon The Supreme Court Bench". The Washington Mail . Retrieved June 10, 2020.
  56. ^ "Archive "Montreal News Network": Images of Muhammad, Gone for Good". 2006-02-12. Archived from the original on 2013-02-10. Retrieved 2006-03-10 .
  57. ^ MSN : "How the "Ban" on Images of Muhammad Came to Be" by Jackie Bischof Archived May 26, 2015, at the Wayback Car January 19, 2015.
  58. ^ Seth Zimmerman (2003). The Inferno of Dante Alighieri. iUniverse. p. 191. ISBN0-595-28090-0.
  59. ^ a b Philip Willan (2002-06-24). "Al-Qaida plot to blow upward Bologna church fresco". The Guardian.
  60. ^ Ayesha Akram (2006-02-eleven). "What'south backside Muslim cartoon outrage". San Francisco Chronicle.
  61. ^ Smith, Charlotte Colding (2015). Images of Islam, 1453–1600: Turks in Germany and Central Europe. Routledge. p. 26. ISBN9781317319634.
  62. ^ Terror am Telefon, Spiegel, February seven, 2000
  63. ^ Carolin Emcke: Fanatiker sind leicht verführbar, Interview with Nadeem Elyas, February seven, 2000
  64. ^ 6. Februar 2006 Betr.: Titel, Spiegel, 6 Feb 6, 2006
  65. ^ Spiegel Special 1, 1998, page 76
  66. ^ "Italian republic frees Fresco Suspects". The New York Times. 2002-08-22.
  67. ^ "Muhammad depiction controversy lurks in U's past". Daily Utah Chronicle. Academy of Utah. 22 Feb 2006. Archived from the original on sixteen November 2017. Retrieved 16 Nov 2017.
  68. ^ Tempomedia (1990-11-10). "Wajah rasulullah di tengah umat". Tempo . Retrieved 2020-05-05 .
  69. ^ "Swedish foreign government minister resigns over cartoons". Reuters AlertNet. Archived from the original on 22 March 2006. Retrieved 2006-03-21 .
  70. ^ Staff. Danish cartoons 'plotters' held BBC, 12 February 2008
  71. ^ "Super Best Friends". South Park. Season 5. Episode 68. 2001-07-04.
  72. ^ "Ryan j Budke. "S Park'southward been showing Muhammad all season!" TVSquad.com; April 15, 2006". Tvsquad.com. Retrieved 2013-06-06 .
  73. ^ Ströman, Lars (2007-08-18). "Rätten att förlöjliga en religion" (in Swedish). Nerikes Allehanda. Archived from the original on 2007-09-06. Retrieved 2007-08-31 .
    English language translation: Ströman, Lars (2007-08-28). "The right to ridicule a religion". Nerikes Allehanda. Archived from the original on 2007-08-thirty. Retrieved 2007-08-31 .
  74. ^ "Iran protests over Swedish Muhammad cartoon". Agence France-Presse. 2007-08-27. Archived from the original on 2007-08-29. Retrieved 2007-08-27 .
  75. ^ "Islamic republic of pakistan CONDEMNS THE PUBLICATION OF OFFENSIVE SKETCH IN SWEDEN" (Press release). Pakistan Ministry building of Foreign Affairs. 2007-08-30. Archived from the original on 2007-09-04. Retrieved 2007-08-31 .
  76. ^ Salahuddin, Sayed (2007-09-01). "Indignant Afghanistan slams Prophet Mohammad sketch". Reuters . Retrieved 2007-09-09 .
  77. ^ Fouché, Gwladys (2007-09-03). "Egypt wades into Swedish cartoons row". The Guardian . Retrieved 2007-09-09 .
  78. ^ "Jordan condemns new Swedish Mohammed cartoon". Agence French republic-Presse. 2007-09-03. Retrieved 2007-09-09 . [ dead link ]
  79. ^ "The Secretary General strongly condemned the publishing of blasphemous caricatures of prophet Muhammad by Swedish artist" (Printing release). Organization of the Islamic Conference. 2007-08-30. Archived from the original on 2007-10-12. Retrieved 2007-09-09 .
  80. ^ "How I created the Charlie Hebdo magazine cover: cartoonist Luz's statement in full". The Telegraph. 13 Jan 2015. Archived from the original on thirteen January 2015.
  81. ^ Taylor, Jerome (two January 2013). "It's Charlie Hebdo'southward correct to draw Muhammad, merely they missed the opportunity to do something profound". The Contained . Retrieved 12 Oct 2014.
  82. ^ "Has al-Qaeda Struck Back? Part One". viii January 2015. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
  83. ^ a b "Wikipedia defies 180,000 demands to remove images of the Prophet". The Guardian. 17 February 2008.
  84. ^ "Muslims Protestation Wikipedia Images of Muhammad". Fox News. 2008-02-06. Archived from the original on 2012-ten-19. Retrieved 2008-02-07 .
  85. ^ a b Noam Cohen (2008-02-05). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized". The New York Times . Retrieved 2008-02-07 .
  86. ^ MS Arabe 1489. The image used by Wikipedia is hosted on Wikimedia Commons (upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Maome.jpg). The reproduction originates from the website of the Bibliothèque nationale de French republic [3]
  87. ^ "Wikipedia and Depictions of the Prophet Muhammad: The Latest Inane Lark". ten Feb 2008.
  88. ^ "Wikipedia Refuses To Delete Picture Of Muhammad". Data Week. 7 February 2008. Archived from the original on 2012-09-03. {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  89. ^ 'Jihad' jitters at Met – Mohammed fine art gone by Isabel Vincent, 10 Jan 2010.
  90. ^ Kevin Conlon and Kristina Sgueglia, CNN (iv May 2015). "Two shot dead after they open burn at Mohammed cartoon outcome in Texas". CNN . Retrieved one May 2016.
  91. ^ ABC News. "Garland Shooting Suspect Elton Simpson's Father Says Son 'Made a Bad Choice'". ABC News . Retrieved i May 2016.
  92. ^ "Batley Grammar School instructor suspended after Muhammad cartoon protest". BBC News. 25 March 2021. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  93. ^ "Batley school protests: Prophet Muhammad cartoon row 'hijacked'". BBC News. 26 March 2021. Retrieved 26 March 2021.

References

  • Arnold, Thomas W. (2002–2011) [1928]. Painting in Islam, a Study of the Identify of Pictorial Art in Muslim Culture. Gorgias Press LLC. pp. 91–99. ISBN978-1-931956-91-eight.
  • Ali, Wijdan, M. Kiel; N. Landman; H. Theunissen (eds.), "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Evolution of Prophet Muhammad'due south Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art" (PDF), Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art, The Netherlands: Utrecht, vol. 7, no. 1–24, p. 7, archived from the original (PDF) on 2004-12-03
  • Grabar, Oleg, The Story of Portraits of the Prophet Muhammad, in Studia Islamica, 2004, p. 19 onwards.
  • "Gruber (2005)", Gruber, Christiane, Representations of the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic painting, in Gulru Necipoglu, Karen Leal eds., Muqarnas, Volume 26, 2009, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-17589-Ten, 9789004175891, google books
  • "Gruber (2010)", Gruber, Christiane J., The Prophet's ascension: cross-cultural encounters with the Islamic mi'rāj tales, Christiane J. Gruber, Frederick Stephen Colby (eds), Indiana University Printing, 2010, ISBN 0-253-35361-0, ISBN 978-0-253-35361-0, google books
  • "Gruber (Iranica)", Gruber, Christiane, "MEʿRĀJ two. Illustrations", in Encyclopedia Iranica, 2009, online

Further reading

  • Gruber, Christiane J.; Shalem, Avinoam (eds), The Epitome of the Prophet Between Ideal and Ideology: A Scholarly Investigation, De Gruyter, 2014, ISBN 9783110312386, google books, Introduction
  • Gruber, Christiane J., "Images", in: Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (eds), Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God, ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2014, ISBN 9781610691772, google books

External links

  • Devotion in pictures: Muslim popular iconography, University of Bergen
  • "Religious" Paintings in Islamic Art
  • "The Koran Does Not Forestall Images of the Prophet", Newsweek, ix January 2015, by Christiane Gruber,
  • Article with additional cartoons: Collection 2
  • Mohammed Paradigm Annal: Depictions of Mohammed Throughout History
  • Muhammad in Dante's Inferno 28

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